Whilst this has usually been attempted by the time a patient reaches a Pain Clinic, appropriate physiotherapy in the form of an exercise programme is almost always of benefit. A great deal of work needs to be done to validate conventional physiotherapy techniques; usage in acute pain appears to bring little benefit over the natural history of the condition, whilst in chronic pain it can often be of only short-term efficacy. However, functional rehabilitation programmes aimed at restoration of suppleness and muscle function do appear to be of very real benefit in the long term. Chiropractic manipulation has been shown to be effective in some studies, whilst ineffective in others. Again, patient selection and the technique of the manipulator are markedly variable and will alter efficacy a great deal.

Both acupuncture and TENS are exciting great controversy at the present time in the Western world; their long standing use for chronic pain is being questioned because (again) of the lack of evidence. This remains a controversial field, but both techniques appear to be relatively simple, fairly safe in appropriate hands and reasonably cheap. Acupuncture again is said to work on descending inhibitory pain pathways and also to stimulate endorphins (as well as the body’s natural cortisone). Both positive and negative results have been shown in a bewildering variety of trials. There is certainly a powerful placebo effect, but there also seems to be a significant analgesic component, albeit this might last for only a very short period, and the benefits seen with many patients may be due to a reduction in distress and disability engendered by their interaction with the therapist.

Again it is difficult to find a wealth of hard evidence as to the efficacy of TENS, but a limited, albeit significant number of patients appear to get good benefit, and this appears in some studies to be better than placebo.

Dorsal column stimulation continues to excite interest. Clearly, this can be a useful therapy for moderate pain, especially if it encourages entry into a pain management programme-type approach.